826LA Good Times

Q&A with Tom Overton of Gems and Gemology Magazine and Wendy Van Norden of National Earth Sciences Teacher Assn.
BY JOSEPHINE
Earth is the only planet that has life, because it is in the perfect spot. Any closer to the sun, and it would be too hot and things would die. Any farther away from the sun, and the oceans would freeze. Tom and Wendy answered my questions about planets and the atmospheres of different planets.
Q: Can you tell how old a planet is?
Tom: It’s not possible to determine exactly how old something like a planet is. However, scientists can get a good estimate by measuring the age of the planet’s rocks and applying that to what they know about how planets form. One the most useful methods is a technique called radiometric dating or radioisotope dating. A radioisotope is an element that, over time, can turn into another element. Because scientists have extensively studied all the elements in nature, they know how long it takes for one radioisotope to turn into something else. So, if a geologist finds a rock that is composed of a mixture of one radioisotope and the element that it turns into, by measuring the amounts of each, they can determine how long it has been since the radioisotope was pure. Some radioisotopes turn into other elements very quickly; others take many, many years. When working with very old rocks, geologists look for an element called uranium, which slowly turns into lead over billions of years. By measuring the uranium and lead in these rocks, geologists know that the oldest rocks on earth are about 4.4 billion years old.
Wendy: We assume that all of the planets formed at the same time that the solar system formed. (Pluto is a possible exception.) We base the age of the earth on the age of meteors and the moon that formed at the same time as the solar system and upon our oldest rocks on earth. We can date the rocks and meteorites by radiometric dating. Some of the minerals in the rocks contain radioactive elements, and over time, those radioactive elements decompose into different elements. By seeing how much has decomposed and knowing the rate of decomposition, we can figure out that the moon rocks and meteorites are 4.55 billion years old. The oldest rock that we found on earth is 4.4 billion years old. So we assume that all the planets of our solar system are 4.55 billion years old. However, now we know that there are planets around other suns, and we have no way of knowing their age (yet)!
Q: Are we the only planet with gravity? If we are, why?
Tom: All objects have gravity—even you. Gravity is a force of attraction exerted between two objects. If you have only one object, there would be no detectable gravity. However, any two objects that are close enough together will exert a gravitational force on each other. The strength of the force depends on how big the two objects are and how close together they are. However, gravity is a fairly weak force compared to other forces scientists are aware of, so it takes a very large object like a moon, planet, or star to generate a gravitational force strong enough for you to feel. It is gravity that keeps the moon in orbit around the earth, and the earth in orbit around the sun.
Wendy: Every planet has gravity. In fact, everything with mass has gravity, even you! The more mass a planet has (like Jupiter), the more gravity it has.
Q: How hot is lava on earth?
Tom: Lava is melted rock, and rock has to get very hot in order to melt. However, there are different types of lava, each of which can exist at different temperatures. Bright red liquid lava that you might see spurting out of a volcano is the hottest, over 1,200 degrees Celsius. Other types of lava are darker and thicker, and might be around 700 to 900 degrees. The behavior and melting temperature of lava is determined by its chemical composition. Hot, runny lava is high in iron and magnesium, while thicker, chunkier lava is high in silica and aluminum.
Wendy: The temperature of lava can depend on the kind of lava. The lava of Hawaii that creates the black rock called basalt, can be over 1,000 degrees Celsius, while the kind of magma that creates granite, an important rock of the earth’s crust can be about 800 degrees Celsius. You don’t get to see that kind of magma very often, because instead of just flowing down the side of a volcano, it tends to erupt violently, like at Yellowstone.
Q: Is the moon really just a part of the earth, or is it separate?
Tom: The moon is not physically part of the earth. However, some scientists think it might once have been. There are several theories about how the moon formed. Some scientists think it was a very small planet that was captured by the earth’s gravity long ago. Others think it formed at the same time as the earth, from the same cloud of gas and dust. However, the most popular theory today is that the early earth was struck by another planet soon after it formed, and from that, a large mass of rock was thrown into orbit around the earth. That mass of rock eventually formed into the moon. So in a way, the moon may be a part of the earth that got knocked loose.
Wendy: The most accepted theory about the formation of the moon states that early earth was hit by a planet the size of Mars. This ripped a big chunk of the earth, which formed the moon.

Q&A with USC Professor Werner Dappen about dwarf planet Pluto
BY RUBY
Q: How cold is Pluto?
A: The average surface temperature on Pluto is 44 Kelvin (-229 Celsius or -380 Fahrenheit). For more, see www.universetoday.com/guide-to-space/pluto/temperature-of-pluto
Q: Is Pluto dusty?
A: No, we do not think so. Rather, we imagine the surface consists of frozen methane (which is a gas down here!), and so instead of ‘dusty,’ ‘icy’ is the better comparison, even if it is not water ice.
Q: Can people live on Pluto? If not, why?
A: Well, try to live at -380F … (of course, if you bring a full space habitat, with heating and air and water, sure, but I would not call it ‘live.’ Similarly, can I ‘live’ on the Moon? Normal speaking here implies a ‘no,’ even if we can build lunar bases, etc.
Q: How long would it take me to get to Pluto?
A: With current rocket technology, the trip can be done in four to 10 years, depending on if you are willing to burn more fuel to get less payload there or not. A NASA spacecraft—New Horizons—is actually on the way. Departed 2006 and arriving 2015.
Q: What is the surface like?
A: As said above, icy (but with frozen methane, not water).
Q: How many asteroids a year land on Pluto?
A: I would not speak of ‘landing.’ Next time an asteroid hits the earth and kills half of the human population (can happen every 100 million years or so), I would speak of an impact, not landing. But to your question, I have no clue (and depends on how small the asteroids are—dust grains? In that case, of course, many impacts. But if bigger chunks are meant (city size or larger), I do not know about the asteroid population there, and nobody knows, because out there, they are too small to be seen from here.
Q: Is Pluto a planet? If not, what is it?
A: On Aug. 24, 2006, the International Astronomical Union decided on a new definition of “planet,” which does not include Pluto. Pluto is now classified as a “dwarf planet” (or “Kuiper Belt object”). This renaming makes sense, because we believe there are many Pluto-class objects out there, and to be consistent, that would hike up the number of planets; demoting Pluto has prevented this. But we love its name, its history. For more, visit nineplanets.org/pluto.html

Q&A with seismologist Kate Hutton
BY ALANIS
Q: Why are earthquakes happening every month?
Hutton: There are earthquakes every day. Hundreds of them. Most of them are very small, but occasionally they are larger. Worldwide, there are normally up to ten 7.0+ quakes per year, a hundred 6.0+, etc. Often they are under the ocean or in unpopulated areas, so you don’t hear about them on the news.
Q: Where do earthquakes happen the most and why?
Hutton: Almost all earthquakes occur at or near the boundaries of large pieces of crust called tectonic plates. The plates move around at a rate of a couple of inches per year, so they rub together. This may cause some fault zone to break, which sends out sound waves in the Earth that we feel as shaking.
Q: National Geographic predicts the big earthquake will happen by 2037. Do you agree?
Hutton: We think we know something about how often earthquakes occur and we think there is at least a 50/50 chance of a 7.5+ quake in southern California in the next 30 years. Even more likely for a Northridge-sized quake (6.7+), maybe 97% chance. Since this study was made in 2007, that would account for the date quotes as 2037.
Q: Do you think Los Angeles is prepared for the big one? If not, what can we do?
Hutton: There is a wide range. Some people just don’t want to think about it.
Others have all their supplies and are ready for anything. Most are in between somewhere. Some of the city’s infrastructure, such as water mains, are by now quite old and breaking even without the help of earthquakes. These sorts of things could be a problem.
Q: How do you predict earthquakes?
Hutton: We have not figured out how to predict earthquakes, so people will just have to be prepared at all times. There is work being done on an “early warning” alarm system that would warn that a quake has started and the waves are headed your way, maybe some seconds of warning.

BY BIANCA
I know how to make chile rellenos. This is my grandmother’s recipe. My grandmother passed it to my mother, and my mother passed it on to me. It’s not that hard to make this; it’s pretty easy. Depending on how you make it, it can be spicy or not.

1. You have to cook the green chile peppers.
2. You have to peel off the skin on the peppers.
3. Stuff the peppers with cheese or whatever you want.
4. Put the peppers in a foam with eggs and flour.
5. Put the chile peppers on a pan to just cook the foam.
6. Put the peppers in tomato sauce to make it sweeter and cook it until it’s soft.

Monica asks chefs Casey and Anita about onions
I don’t cry around onions. I don’t know why. Don’t ask me­—talk to expert chefs who know about onions.
First I asked, “Why do onions make some people cry?” “They tend to make people cry not when they eat them, but when they cut them,” Anita said. “There is a chemical containing sulfur which reacts in the eyes that causes tears,” said Casey.
Then I asked, “What are onions made of?” And Anita said, “I guess the scientific answer is that they’re made out of cells, like every other organic thing is. When you cut an onion, you’re breaking open the cells and those cells contain a chemical called an enzyme. The enzymes are harsh smelling, and sensitive people can cry when they’re exposed. One solution is to use a very, very sharp knife when working with onions. That makes the break in the cell wall cleaner and less likely to release the enzymes. Other people have nutty ideas about having running water nearby, or chewing on a piece of bread while cutting, but I don’t believe any of that.” Then Casey said, “Just like any other vegetable, organic material.”
Next, I asked if onions were stinky. Anita said, “An old onion will have a worse smell than a fresh one. A cooked onion will have less smell than a raw one. But in my opinion, the worst smell of all is onions on somebody’s breath. Ew.” But then Casey said, “Onions should be sweet and earthy but still smell like an onion.”
I also asked, “Where do onions grow?” Anita answered, “One of the best, sweetest variety of onions is called the Vidalia onion, because it grows in Vidalia, GA.” Casey said, “The ground. Most any place with good soil can grow onions. They do like warmer places.”
I also wondered if onions are sour. Anita said, “Onions have a strong taste, but not a sour one. If it’s sour, it’s probably old and you should reconsider eating it.” Casey had a different answer. “No, they shouldn’t be sour,” he said.
Finally, I asked what their favorite recipe for onions is. Anita said, “I love french onion soup. It’s not very easy to make at home though. When I’m not in a restaurant kitchen with all the fancy equipment and expensive ingredients, I would probably just slice an onion very, very thin and cook it in a saute pan with a little olive oil for a very long time until it’s a deep mahogany brown, then serve it on top of a thick juicy steak.” Casey said he likes French onion soup.

BY JASON
The Dodgers could make it to the World Series if the team works hard.
The Dodgers center fielder, Matt Kemp, would be the ultimate hitting weapon, along with Andre Ethier and Manny Ramirez. The team’s closer, Jonathan Broxton, will be the best, if he keeps an ERA (earned run average) of 0.00. Clayton Kershaw might have an ERA of 0.00. Blake DeWitt and Ronnie Belliard are weak at plate, so they have to make it up by hitting.
Ramirez and Kemp have to avoid injuries. Ethier had one injury. He has to avoid that.
The Dodgers have a chance to win the National League Division Series, and then go to the National League Championship Series, and then off to the World Series with maybe the New York Yankees.
I think that the Yankees will also win because of A-Rod (Alex Rodriguez) and Derek Jeter, but that’s off topic.
Russell Martin had a big improvement with his hitting. Casey Blake has to regain his 2004 form with a lot of home runs.
So if the Dodgers are good this season, the team has a shot at the World Series.

BY SIERRA
Exterminated as vermin, gray wolves (Canis lupus) vanished from Mexico to the Arctic by the 1930s. The loss of habitat also caused lower numbers of wolves.
The wolves were listed as an endangered species in 1973.
In 1995, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service airlifted 66 wolves from Canada in an experiment to repopulate Yellowstone National Park and Idaho’s wilderness areas. It caused some controversy.
A few wolves have crossed the border into Montana by themselves and formed packs.
In February 2008, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service said the gray wolf was “thriving” in the northern Rockies. The organization removed the northern Rockies gray wolf from the endangered list on May 4, 2009.
The Interior Department reports that there are about 1,500 wolves now roaming in Montana, Idaho and Wyoming.

BY JASON
Kim Yu-Na was born in Bucheon, Gyeonggi-do, South Korea. She was born with a talent that no other female skater has. Yes, she is pretty and a queen all over the world, but she also is the best skater in the whole world. She came to Toronto in 2006 to practice, because in Korea, she is a big, and I mean big, superstar.

She is the world champion skater and a queen to the entire nation of Korea and the whole world, except Japan. She entered the 2010 Vancouver Olympics with her coach Brian Orser. He helped Kim do better jumping, which is a very hard thing to do in figure skating.

Kim, who is 19 years old, brought the first gold medal to Korea while also breaking the world record for the highest score, 228.56.

BY BIANCA

In the 2000s, this is the thing that I remembered most: learning how to play football. The reason why I play football is because there is nothing else to do and I was bored, and everything else was boring.

I play with my friends Gaby, Jose, Jonny, Anthony, Angel, Ivy, Efron and sometimes April and other people too. It is half girls and half boys, and the best player of the boys is Jonny and the best of the girls is me. I am the quarterback, and I was the wide receiver. Jonny is too.

This summer, in one game, Jonny was the quarterback, and I was the wide receiver. I got the ball and made a touchdown in the last play of the game. That was the best win of 2009 in football.

The first game that I ever played was in April 2009. I don’t watch football; I just play it.

One time Jonny got a touchdown, and he did the SpongeBob dance to celebrate.

I threw about 10 touchdowns in 2009.

A few of the Good Times journalists write some thoughts on the future.

PENGUINS by Lena
Penguins eat fish and squid. The smallest penguin is called the fairy penguin. All of you are probably wondering how tall they are or on a daily basis, how much food do they eat. Well, Wikipedia does not know.

ROBOTS by Oscar
I think that robots are very cool devices. There is a microwave, but I want robots that move and ask you what you want. I also want a robot that does my homework, but it has not been invented. I also want a robot that does your chores.

KEYS by Bianca
In the future, you don’t have to carry a lot of keys. On some doors, you can scan yourself, so the door knows to let you in. On other doors, everything is in one key, so you don’t have to carry a bunch of keys. It will be like in the film Monsters vs. Aliens, in which they can scan your eyes and stuff will open. That’s the future of keys.

Ruby’s Future: Tooth Surgery! By Sierra
An 8-year-old named Ruby has to get surgery on two teeth. She’s my best friend. In 30 days, Ruby Jane has to have two teeth pulled out, because she has an infection. She feels nervous. It will be her third tooth surgery. As a baby, she had four teeth pulled out.